Environmental Impacts in VN

DEVELOPMENT AND ENVIRONMENT IN VIETNAM

Truyet T. Mai, Ph.D. and Quang M. Nguyen, P.E.

Presented at Conference on Strategies for Sustainable Development in Vietnam

University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, USA - November 13-14, 2003

INTRODUCTION

Development and environment are interrelated to each

other. Improper or uncontrolled development is likely to

cause adverse impacts on the environment, and

environmental pollution or degradation may become a

major obstacle for social and economic development.

The interrelationship between development and

environment has been observed throughout the world,

especially in fast-developing countries such as Japan,

South Korea, China, and Thailand (1,2). Recognizing

detrimental effects of environmental pollution and

degradation on sustainable development, the United

Nations Conference on Environment and Development,

which was held from June 3 through June 14, 1992 in Rio

de Janeiro, Brazil discussed and agreed on several global

environmental issues including non-binding statements on

the relationship between sustainable environmental

practices and the pursuit of social and socioeconomic

development. One of these agreements was Agenda 21,

a wide-range assessment of social and economic sectors

with goals for improving environmental and developmental impact of each.

A new road to future

In Vietnam, the renovation policy (doi moi) initiated in 1986 has brought relatively rapid

economic growth, but "...it is also coming at a high environmental cost..." Ten years later,

according to Dr. Quy Vo, president of the Center for Natural Resources and Environmental

Studies at the National University in Hanoi, "Vietnam is being confronted with a number of

serious environmental problems, including deforestation, degradation of land resources,

shortages of fresh water, over-exploitation of biological resources, threats to ecosystems, and

increasing pollution" (3). Although Vietnam's environmental policies date back to 1985, the

environmental problems are widespread and appear getting worse. This paper is an attempt to

present most recent effects of development on the environment and resulting effects of

environmental pollution and degradation on the economic growth and to provide

recommendations for sustainable development in Vietnam.

EFFECTS OF DEVELOPMENT ON ENVIRONMENT

Deforestation

Deforestation has been a serious threat to the forests in Vietnam during the last 60 years, but its

true causes and extent are still ambiguous. "According to the most frequently quoted sources,

1

between 1943 and 1993 the proportion of the national territory covered by forests declined from

at least 43% to 20% (Vo Quy 1996) or even to as low as 16% (Table 2) – the various estimates

differ somewhat, depending on the authors and their respective sources. Some observers go

as far as claiming that the proportion of Vietnam still covered by forests has now fallen below

10%... it can be estimated that the forests of Vietnam recede by more than 200000 ha/year, that

is, the proportion of the country still forested in 1997 vary between 10 and 20%, that is, between

some 3.3 million and 6.6 million ha. In other words, the national annual rate of deforestation

stands between 3 and 6%" (4). As a result, the area of forests destroyed between 1943 and

1993 in Vietnam was at least 76,000 square kilometers.

Forest cover in 1990

Forest cover in 1970

Vietnamese government officials and some researchers have pointed to the wars as the primary

factor for deforestation in Vietnam. In fact, "... from 1945 to 1975, almost uninterrupted warfare

resulted in the destruction of most of the remaining forest and farmland, giving rise to a new

word – ecocide... American and Vietnamese scientists estimate that 22,000 square kilometers

of forests and one-fifth of the country's farmland were affected as a direct result of bombing,

mechanized land clearing and defoliation" (5).

If this estimate is realistic, impacts of wars in 30

years was actually less than one-third the

impacts of peace, i.e. growth and development,

in 18 years between 1975 and 1993.

According to De Koninck (4), "the massive

development of the New Economic Zones"

following the 1976 reunification was likely the

primary cause.

Deforestation in Vietnam appears to continue at

an alarming rate. In the Dak Lak province of

the Central Highlands alone, the area of

Mangroves converted into shrimp ponds

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tropical forests reduced at an average rate of approximately 4.5% per year, from 1,219,848 ha

in 1995 to 1,000,000 ha in 2000 (6).

Since the last decade, the forest systems in Vietnam have faced with a new threat: destruction

of mangroves for shrimp aquaculture. "The rapid development of shrimp aquaculture has had a

very serious impact on Vietnam's mangrove forests. Over the last 50 years, Vietnam has lost at

least 220,000 ha of mangrove forests – more than 80% of original cover has been deforested. In

2000, just 110,680 ha of mangrove were thought to remain. Although agriculture, salt pan

development and the war-time use of chemicals were previously the most important threats to

mangroves (see box), for the last decade the greatest threat has been shrimp aquaculture. In

the Mekong Delta's Ca Mau province, the area under shrimp farming trebled in the 12 months to

mid-2001, and is now reported to cover over 202,000 ha. It has been estimated that mangroves

cover in this area has dropped from over 200,000 ha prior to 1975 to 60,000 to 70,000 ha, and

that almost all of this destruction has been from shrimp aquaculture." (7)

Water Pollution

Rapid socio-economic growth since 1986 has resulted in

water pollution in both urban and rural areas across the

country, and quality of water resources in Vietnam appears to

further degrade, at least in the short term.

Untreated wastewater from municipal and industrial areas has

been discharged directly into rice fields, canals, lakes, and

rivers without treatment. "Nationally, the annual discharge of

untreated sewage and industrial wastewater into major rivers

is estimated at 240-300 million cubic meters, an amount the

World Bank projects will grow 10-fold within 15 years [in

2010]" (3).

Discharge of untreated wastewater has caused serious water

pollution problems in major cities such as Ha Noi, Ho Chi Minh

City, Hai Phong, Viet Tri, and Bien Hoa. According to the

State of Environment in Vietnam 2001, "most of the monitored

rivers are found to be polluted with substances like N and P,

from 4 to nearly 200 times compared with water resource of

category A [for potable water] and from 2 to 20 times in comparison with water source of

category B [for non-potable water]. Organic pollution in Sai Gon River, Vam Co Dong River and

canals is very serious while it is rather severe in Dong Nai River" (8). "Rivers in the major cities

have a biological oxygen demand (BOD) of 2.5-7.5 times the Vietnamese and European

Community's standards for surface waters that supply drinking water, indicating that the water

has a high organic content. These rivers cannot support fish, since their dissolved oxygen is

less than 4 milligram per liter" (3).

Untreated wastewater discharged

into To Lich River

3

In addition to organic substances and nutrients, toxic chemicals have also been found in

wastewater. For example, studies for the Bai Bang Paper Mill in the Vinh Phu province

revealed low levels of dioxins accumulated in biota, sludge from the receiving waters and the

sedimentation basin (9), and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were found in municipal sewage

from Ho Chi Minh City (3). Organochlorine pesticides and PCBs were also detected in marine

sediment around Hau River estuaries (10).

In rural areas, according to Dr. Quy Vo, agricultural

activities (including aquaculture and flood control

structures) are causing "a serious problem with water

pollution in many regions of the country" (3). Surface

water has been polluted with nutrients and coliforms

from fertilizers and human and animal wastes.

"According to a report from the Ministry of Agriculture

and Rural Development, the value of fecal coliforms,

averaging between 1,500 and 3,500 MNP/100 ml

[MPN/100 ml] along the Tien and Hau Rivers,

increases to between 3,800 and 12,500 MNP/100 ml

[MPN/100 ml] in irrigation and drainage canals" (11).

Current international water quality standards require

that no coliforms are present in drinking water.

Arsenic has been found in groundwater at elevated concentrations in many areas in the Red

River delta (12). In the Mekong River delta, the arsenic concentration in groundwater is

approaching its allowable level (13). The arsenic problems, which are similar to those in India

and Bangladesh, appear to be caused by construction of more than 210,000 wells in the Red

River and Mekong River deltas since 1980.

Restroom over water

Chemical Pollution

Improper use of large amounts of chemicals and pesticides for agricultural and industrial

production and for fighting disease such as malaria has resulted in serious chemical pollution

across the country. These chemicals may contain persistent organic pollutants (POPs) such as

PCBs, (hexachlorobenzene) HCB, hexachlorocyclo-hexanes (HCHs), dioxins, furans, and DDT.

The amount of fertilizer used in 1996 was estimated at approximately 3,300,000 tons (14). "The

total amount of NPK (N is used for nitrogen, P for P2O5 and K for K2O) used over the past 10

years has increased on average by 11.6% per year. This is one of the highest increases in

South East Asia; comparative figures are 3.2% for Indonesia; 7.2% for the Philippines and

12.1% for Thailand" (15).

"According to data from the Ministry of Trade, in

2000, approximately 34,000 tons of pesticides were

imported. This figure does not include

approximately 15 [1.5] million tons of highly toxic

pesticides illegally imported and sold in the market.

Although domestic production of pesticides from 50

existing manufacturers exceeds 130,000 tons/year,

which is double the demands, smuggling of illegal

pesticides continues" (16).

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Between 27,000 and 30,000 tons of oil

contaminated with PCBs have been imported from

former Soviet Union, China, and Rumania. PCBs

are used extensively in transformer and large capacitors, hydraulic and heat transfer fluids,

paint additives, and lubrication oil. A portion of the contaminated oil was discharged directly into

the environment and caused environmental pollution (17).

Chemicals retailer

DDT was first used in Vietnam to combat malaria in 1949. The quantity of DDT used, however,

was 315 tons in 1961 and decreased to just 22 tons in 1974. Between 1957 and 1990, the

quantity of imported DDT totaled 24,042 tons. Although the use of DDT was banned in 1992,

importation and use of DDT continued until 1994. Between 1992 and 1994, the quantity of DDT

imported from Russia totaled 423,358 tons (18).

"Vietnam faces a tradeoff between trying to contain an environmental disease and allowing

environmental contamination" (3). In fact, DDT has shown up in the environment and in people.

A study conducted in the Nghe An province indicates that DDT still remains at a storage facility,

which was operated between 1965 and 1985. The DDT concentration varied between 3.38 and

960.6 mg/kg in soil samples and between 0.00012 and 0.00168 mg/l in water samples. For

many years, strong odor spread as far as 600 meters from the source. Twenty-five people died

because of cancers, and 22 cases of birth defects were reported (19).

High levels of DDT between 4,220 to 7,300 parts per billion (ppb) were detected in human

breast milk in a 1989 study conducted by Dr. Arnold Schecter (3). Another study conducted in

1999 detected elevated levels of not only DDT and its metabolites (up to 1,600 ppb for DDT and

8,900 ppb for DDE) but also POPs such as HCB (up to 2.2 ppb), mirex (up to 2.2 ppb), dieldrin

(up to 0.63 ppb), and PCBs (up to 54 ppb) (20).

In a 2001 study, dioxin and dioxin-like chemicals such as polychlorinated dioxins (PCDDs),

polychlorinated dibenzo-furans (PCDFs), and PCBs were detected in 20 blood samples

collected from residents of the Bien Hoa city. The concentrations ranged from 2.4 to 271 part

per trillion (ppt) for dioxin, from 143 to 1,133 ppt for PCDDs, from 43.3 to 184 ppt for PCDFs,

and from 31 to 156 ppt for PCBs (21).

In a 2002 study, POPs were detected in 16 food samples (fish, pork, beef, duck, and toad) also

collected from the Bien Hoa city. The concentrations ranged from 0.025 to 331 parts per trillion

(ppt) for dioxin (2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin), from 17 to 8,216 ppt for PCB 118, from 8.6

to 919 ppt for HCHs, up to 1,391 ppt for HCB, from 46 to 44,722 ppt for DDT, and from 305 to

149,409 ppt for DDE. Polychlorinated dioxins (PCDDs) and polychlorinated dibenzo-furans

(PCDFs) were also detected at lower levels (22).

Because of health and environmental problems

from POPs in agriculture and industry, Vietnam

was selected as one of nine case studies

sponsored by the United Nations Environmental

Program (UNEP) (23).

Air Pollution

The most common air pollutant in Vietnam is

dust. From 1995 to 1999, "... most urban areas

in Vietnam are polluted by dust, and some

centers are polluted to an alarming degree... In

residential areas next to factories or near large

traffic roads, dust concentration is often higher 1.3 to threefold the acceptable level. The residential

areas near brick and beer plants in Lao Cai town have dust concentration that is fivefold higher than

the permitted standard. The places with highest levels of air pollution are residential areas near Hai

Coping with air pollution in major cities

5

Phong cement plant, VICASA plant (Bien Hoa), Tan Binh industrial zone (Ho Chi Minh City), and

Hon Gai coal select plant (Ha Long City)" (8). "According to the 1995 World Bank report, dust from

cement factories coats much of Hai Phong, the third-largest city, exceeding government air

standards by three to eight times." (3).

In general, daily average concentrations of CO and

NO2 are still below air quality standards in large

cities such as Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh City, Da Nang,

Hai Phong. The air quality standards, however,

have been exceeded in some areas. "For example,

in Dinh Tien Hoang-Dien Bien Phu cross-road ( Ho

Chi Minh City), the daily average value (1999) of

NO2 content was 0.255 mg/m3, which was 2.55

times the permitted standard, and CO content was

15.46 mg/m3, which was more than three times the

permitted standard. In Da Nang steel plant area,

the daily average value (1999) of NO2 content was

0.11 mg/m3, which is 1.1 times the permitted

standard, and CO content was 12.2 mg/m3, which

is 2.44 fold the permitted standard. In Thuong Dinh

industrial zone (Ha Noi) in 1999, CO content was

7.2 mg/m3 that is 1.4 times the permitted standard;

in Hai Phong cement plant in 1999, CO

concentration was 9.42 mg/m3, which is 1.88 times

the permitted standard" (8).

Lead is another common air pollutant, especially in

urban areas. "In Ho Chi Minh City in 1991, 750,000

motorcycles and 75,000 other vehicles, all burning leaded gasoline, contributed to an ambient

lead level of 1-4 micrograms per cubic meter. In comparison, Chicago's airborne lead level in

1988 was less than 0.5 micrograms per cubic meter, according to research published in

Pediatrics in 1994" (3). In Hanoi, the lead level in some areas exceeded 4 micrograms per

cubic meter in 1998 (8).

Air pollution from factories

in urban areas

"Impact of air pollution emission from

several industries (for example: Cau Duong

Brick enterprise, Hoang Thach

Thermoelectric Plant etc) has caused

damage to surrounding agricultural

products. It has damaged the paddy fields

and reduced productivity of rice by 20 to

50%. The ambient air of areas surrounding

several industries (Hai Phong Cement Plant,

Thuong Dinh industrial area etc) is heavily

polluted by dust and SO2 and directly affects

human health e.g. increase in respiratory

diseases by 1.5 - 2.5 times in comparison

with other places, where the environment is

non – polluted" (8)

6

Solid Wastes

Municipal and industrial wastes are other contributing

factors to environmental pollution in Vietnam.

According to the State of the Environment in Vietnam

2001 (8), municipal wastes averaged approximately

16,200 tons/day in 1996, 19,300 tons/day in 1997, and

increased to approximately 22,200 tons/day in 1998.

These amounts did not include approximately 800

tons of cesspool sludge dumped into landfills

everyday. Industrial wastes were estimated between

15 to 26 percent of municipal wastes, in which

between 35 and 41 percent were hazardous.

Hazardous wastes were estimated at approximately

2,200 tons/day in 1998 and 2,600 tons/day in 1999. Medical wastes were estimated between

50 to 75 tons/day. Most hazardous wastes including medical wastes were not treated or were

treated inadequately and then dumped together with municipal wastes into open landfills.

Approximately 13 and 20 percent of solid wastes were reused or recycled, mainly done by

scavengers, who collect plastic, paper, metal and glass.

Trash scavengers

Lack of an adequate collection and disposal system

has encouraged illegal dumping, especially into

canals and rivers causing serious environmental and

transportation problems for these waterways (24). In

Ho Chi Minh City, approximately 100 tons of trash is

dumped into 5 major canals every day, and the total

amount of trash floating in these canals was

estimated at 53,000 tons (25). At existing sanitary

landfills such as Dong Thanh, Tam Tan, and Phuoc

Hiep landfills in Ho Chi Minh City, "... there is no liner

in the bottom and on the walls, no leachate collection

and control or gas system, and no cover layer and no fence on traditional landfills" (8). As a

result, these landfills have become sources of environmental pollution in their vicinities

(26,27,28).

Floating trash in canals

EFFECTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION ON DEVELOPMENT

The environmental pollution has already shown its

impacts on the social and economic development in

Vietnam. Water pollution has reduced availability of

fresh water, killed aquacultural fish in rivers (29,30),

and damaged crops and plants along polluted canals

and rivers used as sources for irrigation water (31).

"The World Bank is soliciting bids for a $150 million

project to build new raw water mains, expand and

update treatment plants, and lay distribution piping in

four large cities" (3). Because of the use of

chloramphenicol and nitrofurans to cope with water

pollution, "... the Vietnam's seafood industry has lost

scores of US dollars recently" (32). Costs for

Aquacultural fish killed by water pollution

in Dong Nai River

7

remediation of water pollution are even higher. "In the Red River delta alone, remediation of

water pollution is estimated at approximately 4 billion $US. Without remediation, costs of water

pollution may reach 8 to 12 billion $US" (33). In the Saigon and Dong Nai river basins, the costs

to protect water from pollution were estimated at approximately 130 million $US (34).

Chemical pollution has threatened public health and

safety and affected the quality of a variety of

agricultural products such meats, seafoods, fruits, and

vegetables. The most common threat is food

poisoning. In 1998 and 1999, 8,758 cases of

pesticides poisoning were reported with 10,034

persons seriously affected and 198 deaths. The

numbers increased to 6,962 cases, 7,613 affected

persons, and 187 deaths in 2001 (35). Long-term

health effects from chemical pollution including death,

cancers, and birth defects have been observed and

reported (17,36). A budget of approximately 30 million

$US was approved for food safety programs in 2003

(37).

Birth defects caused by

pesticides pollution

The tourist industry may have been affected because of environmental pollution at tourist

attractions (38), but effects may not have been recognized.

Effects of environmental pollution on development, i.e. economic costs resulting from

environmental pollution, are very difficult to quantify or estimate. According to studies

conducted in China, "...the annual economic cost of environmental degradation in China can be

illustrated in terms of income loss as a result of deforestation, environmental pollution, and

degradation of natural resources... The final outcome is quite stunning. On an annual basis,

economic losses to China as a result of environmental degradation equal 382.61 billion yuan.

This figure represents 18.9 [percent] of China's

total national income (2022.3 billion yuan in

1992)" (39).

5.81

8.7

8.08

8.83

9.54 9.34

8.15

5.76

4.77

6.75 6.84 7.04

0

2

4

6

8

10

1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

Vietnam's GDP growth rate

According to the Vietnam General Statistical

Office, the gross domestic product (GDP)

increased at an average rate of approximately

7.5 percent between 1991 and 2002 (40). But

this increase did not appear to include "high

environmental costs." Even if the

environmental costs are assumed to be only

one-half of those in China, i.e. approximately

9.5 percent, the GDP actually decreased at a

rate of approximately 2.0 percent.

ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION MEASURES AND ACHIEVEMENT

8

"Vietnam's environmental policies date to 1985, with the development of a National

Conservation Strategy that urged maintenance of ecological and life-support processes of the

country's various ecosystems and the preservation of its genetic diversity. In 1992, a national

plan was developed to coordinate the development of regulations, information systems, and

strategic for sustainable development, and to promote the use of environmental impact

assessments. This in turn led to the passage of the Environmental Protection Law in 1993,

giving environmental authority to the Ministry of Science, Technology, and Environment" (3).

In addition to the Environmental Protection Law, other laws and regulations were also passed.

These include the Forest Protection and Development Law (1991), the People Health Protection

Law (1989); the Land Use Law (1993), the Law of Oil and Petrol (1993), the Mineral Resources

Law (1996), the Water Resources Law (1998), the Dykes Protection Ordinance (1989), the

Criminal Affair Law (reform, 1999), the Ordinance of Resources Taxes (1989), the Ordinance of

Aquatic Resource Protection (1989), the Ordinance of Radiation Safety and Control (1996), and

the Ordinance of Vegetation Protection and Quarantine (1993) (8).

Although environmental protection has been strengthened during the last decade, the Vietnam

environment continues to degrade. "The socio-economic development process during the

industrialisation period, together with urbanisation and rapid population growth exerts a high

pressure on the environment and natural resources. The forest area continues to be degraded

and destroyed. Mineral products are still exploited recklessly. Land and soil are being eroded

and degraded. Both terrestrial and marine biodiversity have gradually been depleted. The

surface water and ground water resources are more and more polluted and face the risk of

depletion in some regions. Water pollution has also started to occur in coastal areas. The

environment around many urban centres and industrial areas has been polluted by wastewater,

emissions and solid wastes. Environmental sanitary conditions in rural areas are still very

poor..." (8)

Vietnamese officials and some anti-war

organizations claim that environmental

degradation in Vietnam is caused by

"consequences of the Vietnam War" and by

"... a lack of appropriate environmental

standards, coordination and consistency in

the implementation of Vietnam's various legal

provisions on the environment. This is due to

a shortage of necessary facilities for

monitoring environmental policy

implementation and a shortage of human

resources in environmental control units.

There is a lack of public awareness for the

need for environmental protection" (41).

US-Vietnam conference on dioxin in Hanoi

But the true cause appears to be the deficiency of the existing system for environmental

protection, especially in the areas of management and remediation strategies. According to Dr.

Judith Ladinsky, a professor of the University of Wisconsin-Madison and chair of the U.S.

Committee for Scientific Cooperation with Vietnam, Vietnam officials should insist "... on real,

not paper, environmental protection..." (3). Strategies to remediate environmental pollution such

as blame on the consequences of the Vietnam War (42), the relocation of documented polluters

from urban to suburban or rural areas (43), and the diversion of water from polluted canals in Ho

Chi Minh City into the Vam Co and Saigon Rivers (44,45) do not appear to be appropriate.

These remediation strategies do not likely solve pollution problems. On the contrary, they

spread the pollution into clean or less-polluted areas and may make the pollution problems

9

worse. In fact, "... numerous relocated factories in new industrial areas continue to pollute the

environment" (43).

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Since the renovation policy (doi moi) was initiated in 1986, Vietnam has experienced a relatively

rapid economic growth at an average rate of 7.5 percent of the GDP during the last 12 years.

This economic growth, however, has come with the expense of the environment. Vietnam now

is facing with serious environmental problems.

Available data shows that the area of forests destroyed after 1975 has trebled the impacts of

wars between 1945 and 1975, and deforestation still continues at an alarming rate. The forest

systems in Vietnam have also faced with a new threat: destruction of mangroves for shrimp

aquaculture. There are practically no wastewater treatment facilities. Untreated wastewater

from municipal and industrial areas has been discharged directly into rice fields and water

bodies and caused serious water pollution in major cities and river basins. In rural areas,

environmental conditions are not better. Surface water has been polluted with nutrients,

coliforms, and possibly pesticides from agricultural activities and human and animal wastes.

Improper use of large amounts of chemicals and pesticides for agricultural and industrial

production and for fighting disease (DDT) has resulted in serious chemical pollution across the

country. Toxic chemicals including POPs have been found in the environment, foods, breast

milk, and blood. Several toxic chemicals have elevated concentrations much higher than those

for dioxin. Most of urban areas are polluted with dust and smoke, especially in the areas

adjacent to industrial areas, thermo power plants, and cement plants. Lack of an adequate

system for collection and disposal of solid wastes has encouraged illegal dumping, especially

into canals and rivers. Municipal, medical, and industrial wastes have been dumped in open

landfills. These landfills were not properly designed and have become sources of

environmental pollution in their vicinities.

The environmental pollution has already shown its impacts on the social and economic

development in Vietnam. Water pollution has reduced availability of fresh water, killed

aquacultural fish in the rivers, and damaged crops and plants along polluted canals and rivers.

Chemical pollution has threatened public health and safety and affected the quality of

agricultural products. Both short-term and long-term effects including food poisoning, cancers,

birth defects, and death have been observed and reported. It is difficult to quantify or estimate

the economic costs from environmental pollution, especially in Vietnam, but the economic

losses due to environmental pollution may exceed 9.5 percent of the GDP based on a study

conducted in China.

Although environmental protection has been strengthened during the last decade, the Vietnam

environment continues to degrade at an alarming rate. Vietnamese officials and some anti-war

organizations claim that environmental degradation in Vietnam is caused by "consequences of

the Vietnam War" and by a lack of environmental standards, technical tools, and public

awareness. But the true cause appears to be the deficiency of the existing system for

environmental protection, especially in the areas of management and remediation strategies.

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In order to maintain sustainable development, Vietnam should have a sustainable environment.

Extensive changes should be made, as soon as possible, to improve the existing system for

environmental protection including capacity building, technical training and education, and

proper and effective environmental laws and regulations. Policies should focus on (1) improving

capability in management and environmental know-how, (2) improving environmental education

and training in schools and universities, (3) improving capability of responsible agencies, (4)

prioritizing remediation objectives to optimize effectiveness, (5) improving public awareness on

environmental issues, (6) controlling and encouraging the safe use of the pesticides and

chemicals for agricultural and industrial production (7) seeking international assistance to

eliminate POPs, (8) cooperating with international communities and facilitating their cooperation,

and (9) preparing and implementing appropriate measures to effectively control the disposal of

wastes (solid, liquid, and gas) from industrial and municipal areas.

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(17) Nguyen, Sinh N. et al. March 1999. "The Persistent Organic Pollutants and Their

Management in Vietnam." Proceedings of the Regional Workshop on the Management of

Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs), Hanoi, Vietnam, 16-19 March, 1999.

(18) Nguyen, Hien V. "Malaria and Its Control in Vietnam." Ministry of Health, Hanoi, Vietnam.

(19) GINC Vietnam. "Brief Report on Contamination of Pesticide Influence to Environment and

People's Health in Hoa Son Subdistrict, Do Luong District, Nghe An Province." Hanoi,

Vietnam. http://www.vnnews.com/coci/ginc/index.htm

(20) Hatfield Consultants Ltd. and 10-80 Committee. April 2001. Development of Impact

Mitigation Strategies Related to the Use of Agent Orange Herbicide in the Aluoi Valley,

Vietnam. West Vancouver, Canada.

(21) Schecter, Arnold et al. May 2001. "Recent Dioxin Contamination From Agent Orange in

Residents of a Southern Vietnam City." Journal of Occupational and Environmental

Medicine, Volume 45, Number 5:435-443.

(22) Schecter, Arnold et al. 2003. "Food as a Source of Dioxin Exposure in the Residents of

Bien Hoa City, Vietnam." Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Volume

45, Number 8:781-788.

(23) UNEP. "POPs Related Case Studies." Proceedings of the Regional Workshop on the

Management of Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs), Hanoi, Vietnam, 16-19 March,

1999.

(24) T. Mai and N. Hau. May 24, 2002. "76 km kenh rach dang can dan vi rac" (in

Vietnamese). Nguoi Lao Dong Newspaper, Hanoi, Vietnam. www.nld.com.vn

(25) Lao Dong Newspaper. September 7, 2003. "Hoa Binh – Ha Tay – Ha Noi – Ninh Binh –

Nam Dinh: Chung song o nhiem" (in Vietnamese). Lao Dong Newspaper, Hanoi, Vietnam.

www.laodong.com.vn

12

(26) Tuoi Tre Newspaper. December 20, 2002. "Bai rac Dong Thanh o nhiem mui hoi trong

pham vi 5.000 m" (in Vietnamese). Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. www.vnexpress.com

(27) Thu Mai and Doan Phu. January 17, 2003. "Do rac ve Tam Tan, hau qua kho luong" (in

Vietnamese). Nguoi Lao Dong Newspaper. Hanoi, Vietnam. www.nld.com.vn

(28) Doan Phu. May 9, 2002. "Bai rac Phuoc Hiep, huyen Cu Chi: Vua hoat dong da gay o

nhiem" (in Vietnamese). Nguoi Lao Dong Newspaper. Hanoi, Vietnam. www.nld.com.vn

(29) Phan, Cong T. Jan 21, 2003. "Ve vu ca chet o Dong Nai: Dan lang be dang can cuu tro,

boi thuong" (in Vietnamese). Lao Dong Newspaper, Hanoi, Vietnam.

www.laodong.com.vn

(30) Tuoi Tre Newspaper. February 6, 2003. "Ca chet hang loat tren song Vam Co Dong" (in

Vietnamese). Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. www.vnexpress.com

(31) Tuoi Tre Newspaper. May 17, 2002. "TP HCM: O nhiem nghiem trong o Kenh Thay Cai"

(in Vietnamese). Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. www.vnexpress.com

(32) Thanh Nien Newspaper. September 12, 2002. "Nhieu thuc pham nhap tu EU va My co du

luong khang sinh", Hanoi, Vietnam. www.vnexpress.com

(33) Pham, Xa. August 28, 2003. "O nhiem nuoc – Bai toan kho giai" (in Vietnamese) Sai Gon

Giai Phong Newspaper, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. www.sggp.org.vn

(34) Lao Dong Newspaper. September 12, 2003. "Can hon 2 nghin ti dong bao ve moi truong

nuoc song Gai Gon – Dong Nai" (in Vietnamese). Lao Dong Newspaper, Hanoi, Vietnam.

www.laodong.com.vn

(35) Nhan Dan Newspaper. March 13, 2002. "Nam 2001, hon 500 nguoi chet va tai nan lao

dong va nhiem doc." (in Vietnamese). Nhan Dan Newspaper, Hanoi, Vietnam.

www.nhandan.org.vn

(36) Phan, Phiet T. June 15, 2001. "Nguoi ca o Hop Thanh" (in Vietnamese). Lao Dong

Newspaper, Hanoi, Vietnam. www.laodong.com.vn

(37) Nhan Dan Newspaper. December 6, 2002. "40 ty dong cho cong tac bao dam an toan ve

sinh thuc pham" (in Vietnamese). Nhan Dan Newspaper, Hanoi, Vietnam.

www.nhandan.org.vn

(38) Manh Hung. September 14, 2003. "Khu du lich Tam Dao – bon be rac thai" (in

Vietnamese). Lao Dong Newspaper, Hanoi, Vietnam. www.laodong.com.vn

(39) Mao, Yu-Shi. "The Economic Cost of Environmental Degradation in China – A Summary."

www.library.utoronto.ca/pcs/state/chinaeco/summary.htm

(40) Vietnam Trade Office. "Economic Performance" www.vietnam-ustrade.org

13

(41) Nhan Dan Newspaper. November 14, 2002. "Status of water pollution in Vietnam (report

of the Congressional Committee on Science, Technology, and Environment)" (in

Vietnamese). Nhan Dan Newspaper, Hanoi, Vietnam. www.nhandan.org.vn

(42) Environmental Conference on Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam. July 28, 2002. "Declaration

on the long-term consequences of war in Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam." Stockholm,

Sweden. www.nnn.se/vietnam

(43) Huu Thai. August 11, 2003. "Thieu he thong xu ly nuoc thai: Cac KCN dang thanh 'o' o

nhiem!" (in Vietnamese). Sai Gon Giai Phong Newspaper, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam.

www.sggp.org.vn

(44) Nong, Y K. January 13, 2003. "32 doanh nghiep bien song Sai Gon thanh song den" (in

Vietnamese). Nguoi Lao Dong Newspaper, Hanoi, Vietnam. www.nld.com.vn

(45) T.H.T. September 5, 2003. "TP. Ho Chi Minh: Khoi cong xay dung tram bom chong ngap

cho 1,2 trieu dan" (in Vietnamese). Lao Dong Newspaper, Hanoi, Vietnam.

www.laodong.com.vn

DevelopEnviroVNF.doc

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 "Every Generation needs a New Revolution". - Thomas Jefferson-

"Behold I do not give lectures or a little charity; When I give I give myself".Walt Whitman

 
 

 

 

 
 
 
 
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