DEVELOPMENT AND ENVIRONMENT IN VIETNAM
Truyet T. Mai, Ph.D. and Quang M. Nguyen, P.E.
Presented at Conference on Strategies for Sustainable Development in Vietnam
University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, USA - November 13-14, 2003
INTRODUCTION
Development and environment are interrelated to each
other. Improper or uncontrolled development is likely to
cause adverse impacts on the environment, and
environmental pollution or degradation may become a
major obstacle for social and economic development.
The interrelationship between development and
environment has been observed throughout the world,
especially in fast-developing countries such as Japan,
South Korea, China, and Thailand (1,2). Recognizing
detrimental effects of environmental pollution and
degradation on sustainable development, the United
Nations Conference on Environment and Development,
which was held from June 3 through June 14, 1992 in Rio
de Janeiro, Brazil discussed and agreed on several global
environmental issues including non-binding statements on
the relationship between sustainable environmental
practices and the pursuit of social and socioeconomic
development. One of these agreements was Agenda 21,
a wide-range assessment of social and economic sectors
with goals for improving environmental and developmental impact of each.
A new road to future
In Vietnam, the renovation policy (doi moi) initiated in 1986 has brought relatively rapid
economic growth, but "...it is also coming at a high environmental cost..." Ten years later,
according to Dr. Quy Vo, president of the Center for Natural Resources and Environmental
Studies at the National University in Hanoi, "Vietnam is being confronted with a number of
serious environmental problems, including deforestation, degradation of land resources,
shortages of fresh water, over-exploitation of biological resources, threats to ecosystems, and
increasing pollution" (3). Although Vietnam's environmental policies date back to 1985, the
environmental problems are widespread and appear getting worse. This paper is an attempt to
present most recent effects of development on the environment and resulting effects of
environmental pollution and degradation on the economic growth and to provide
recommendations for sustainable development in Vietnam.
EFFECTS OF DEVELOPMENT ON ENVIRONMENT
Deforestation
Deforestation has been a serious threat to the forests in Vietnam during the last 60 years, but its
true causes and extent are still ambiguous. "According to the most frequently quoted sources,
1
between 1943 and 1993 the proportion of the national territory covered by forests declined from
at least 43% to 20% (Vo Quy 1996) or even to as low as 16% (Table 2) – the various estimates
differ somewhat, depending on the authors and their respective sources. Some observers go
as far as claiming that the proportion of Vietnam still covered by forests has now fallen below
10%... it can be estimated that the forests of Vietnam recede by more than 200000 ha/year, that
is, the proportion of the country still forested in 1997 vary between 10 and 20%, that is, between
some 3.3 million and 6.6 million ha. In other words, the national annual rate of deforestation
stands between 3 and 6%" (4). As a result, the area of forests destroyed between 1943 and
1993 in Vietnam was at least 76,000 square kilometers.
Forest cover in 1990
Forest cover in 1970
Vietnamese government officials and some researchers have pointed to the wars as the primary
factor for deforestation in Vietnam. In fact, "... from 1945 to 1975, almost uninterrupted warfare
resulted in the destruction of most of the remaining forest and farmland, giving rise to a new
word – ecocide... American and Vietnamese scientists estimate that 22,000 square kilometers
of forests and one-fifth of the country's farmland were affected as a direct result of bombing,
mechanized land clearing and defoliation" (5).
If this estimate is realistic, impacts of wars in 30
years was actually less than one-third the
impacts of peace, i.e. growth and development,
in 18 years between 1975 and 1993.
According to De Koninck (4), "the massive
development of the New Economic Zones"
following the 1976 reunification was likely the
primary cause.
Deforestation in Vietnam appears to continue at
an alarming rate. In the Dak Lak province of
the Central Highlands alone, the area of
Mangroves converted into shrimp ponds
2
tropical forests reduced at an average rate of approximately 4.5% per year, from 1,219,848 ha
in 1995 to 1,000,000 ha in 2000 (6).
Since the last decade, the forest systems in Vietnam have faced with a new threat: destruction
of mangroves for shrimp aquaculture. "The rapid development of shrimp aquaculture has had a
very serious impact on Vietnam's mangrove forests. Over the last 50 years, Vietnam has lost at
least 220,000 ha of mangrove forests – more than 80% of original cover has been deforested. In
2000, just 110,680 ha of mangrove were thought to remain. Although agriculture, salt pan
development and the war-time use of chemicals were previously the most important threats to
mangroves (see box), for the last decade the greatest threat has been shrimp aquaculture. In
the Mekong Delta's Ca Mau province, the area under shrimp farming trebled in the 12 months to
mid-2001, and is now reported to cover over 202,000 ha. It has been estimated that mangroves
cover in this area has dropped from over 200,000 ha prior to 1975 to 60,000 to 70,000 ha, and
that almost all of this destruction has been from shrimp aquaculture." (7)
Water Pollution
Rapid socio-economic growth since 1986 has resulted in
water pollution in both urban and rural areas across the
country, and quality of water resources in Vietnam appears to
further degrade, at least in the short term.
Untreated wastewater from municipal and industrial areas has
been discharged directly into rice fields, canals, lakes, and
rivers without treatment. "Nationally, the annual discharge of
untreated sewage and industrial wastewater into major rivers
is estimated at 240-300 million cubic meters, an amount the
World Bank projects will grow 10-fold within 15 years [in
2010]" (3).
Discharge of untreated wastewater has caused serious water
pollution problems in major cities such as Ha Noi, Ho Chi Minh
City, Hai Phong, Viet Tri, and Bien Hoa. According to the
State of Environment in Vietnam 2001, "most of the monitored
rivers are found to be polluted with substances like N and P,
from 4 to nearly 200 times compared with water resource of
category A [for potable water] and from 2 to 20 times in comparison with water source of
category B [for non-potable water]. Organic pollution in Sai Gon River, Vam Co Dong River and
canals is very serious while it is rather severe in Dong Nai River" (8). "Rivers in the major cities
have a biological oxygen demand (BOD) of 2.5-7.5 times the Vietnamese and European
Community's standards for surface waters that supply drinking water, indicating that the water
has a high organic content. These rivers cannot support fish, since their dissolved oxygen is
less than 4 milligram per liter" (3).
Untreated wastewater discharged
into To Lich River
3
In addition to organic substances and nutrients, toxic chemicals have also been found in
wastewater. For example, studies for the Bai Bang Paper Mill in the Vinh Phu province
revealed low levels of dioxins accumulated in biota, sludge from the receiving waters and the
sedimentation basin (9), and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were found in municipal sewage
from Ho Chi Minh City (3). Organochlorine pesticides and PCBs were also detected in marine
sediment around Hau River estuaries (10).
In rural areas, according to Dr. Quy Vo, agricultural
activities (including aquaculture and flood control
structures) are causing "a serious problem with water
pollution in many regions of the country" (3). Surface
water has been polluted with nutrients and coliforms
from fertilizers and human and animal wastes.
"According to a report from the Ministry of Agriculture
and Rural Development, the value of fecal coliforms,
averaging between 1,500 and 3,500 MNP/100 ml
[MPN/100 ml] along the Tien and Hau Rivers,
increases to between 3,800 and 12,500 MNP/100 ml
[MPN/100 ml] in irrigation and drainage canals" (11).
Current international water quality standards require
that no coliforms are present in drinking water.
Arsenic has been found in groundwater at elevated concentrations in many areas in the Red
River delta (12). In the Mekong River delta, the arsenic concentration in groundwater is
approaching its allowable level (13). The arsenic problems, which are similar to those in India
and Bangladesh, appear to be caused by construction of more than 210,000 wells in the Red
River and Mekong River deltas since 1980.
Restroom over water
Chemical Pollution
Improper use of large amounts of chemicals and pesticides for agricultural and industrial
production and for fighting disease such as malaria has resulted in serious chemical pollution
across the country. These chemicals may contain persistent organic pollutants (POPs) such as
PCBs, (hexachlorobenzene) HCB, hexachlorocyclo-hexanes (HCHs), dioxins, furans, and DDT.
The amount of fertilizer used in 1996 was estimated at approximately 3,300,000 tons (14). "The
total amount of NPK (N is used for nitrogen, P for P2O5 and K for K2O) used over the past 10
years has increased on average by 11.6% per year. This is one of the highest increases in
South East Asia; comparative figures are 3.2% for Indonesia; 7.2% for the Philippines and
12.1% for Thailand" (15).
"According to data from the Ministry of Trade, in
2000, approximately 34,000 tons of pesticides were
imported. This figure does not include
approximately 15 [1.5] million tons of highly toxic
pesticides illegally imported and sold in the market.
Although domestic production of pesticides from 50
existing manufacturers exceeds 130,000 tons/year,
which is double the demands, smuggling of illegal
pesticides continues" (16).
4
Between 27,000 and 30,000 tons of oil
contaminated with PCBs have been imported from
former Soviet Union, China, and Rumania. PCBs
are used extensively in transformer and large capacitors, hydraulic and heat transfer fluids,
paint additives, and lubrication oil. A portion of the contaminated oil was discharged directly into
the environment and caused environmental pollution (17).
Chemicals retailer
DDT was first used in Vietnam to combat malaria in 1949. The quantity of DDT used, however,
was 315 tons in 1961 and decreased to just 22 tons in 1974. Between 1957 and 1990, the
quantity of imported DDT totaled 24,042 tons. Although the use of DDT was banned in 1992,
importation and use of DDT continued until 1994. Between 1992 and 1994, the quantity of DDT
imported from Russia totaled 423,358 tons (18).
"Vietnam faces a tradeoff between trying to contain an environmental disease and allowing
environmental contamination" (3). In fact, DDT has shown up in the environment and in people.
A study conducted in the Nghe An province indicates that DDT still remains at a storage facility,
which was operated between 1965 and 1985. The DDT concentration varied between 3.38 and
960.6 mg/kg in soil samples and between 0.00012 and 0.00168 mg/l in water samples. For
many years, strong odor spread as far as 600 meters from the source. Twenty-five people died
because of cancers, and 22 cases of birth defects were reported (19).
High levels of DDT between 4,220 to 7,300 parts per billion (ppb) were detected in human
breast milk in a 1989 study conducted by Dr. Arnold Schecter (3). Another study conducted in
1999 detected elevated levels of not only DDT and its metabolites (up to 1,600 ppb for DDT and
8,900 ppb for DDE) but also POPs such as HCB (up to 2.2 ppb), mirex (up to 2.2 ppb), dieldrin
(up to 0.63 ppb), and PCBs (up to 54 ppb) (20).
In a 2001 study, dioxin and dioxin-like chemicals such as polychlorinated dioxins (PCDDs),
polychlorinated dibenzo-furans (PCDFs), and PCBs were detected in 20 blood samples
collected from residents of the Bien Hoa city. The concentrations ranged from 2.4 to 271 part
per trillion (ppt) for dioxin, from 143 to 1,133 ppt for PCDDs, from 43.3 to 184 ppt for PCDFs,
and from 31 to 156 ppt for PCBs (21).
In a 2002 study, POPs were detected in 16 food samples (fish, pork, beef, duck, and toad) also
collected from the Bien Hoa city. The concentrations ranged from 0.025 to 331 parts per trillion
(ppt) for dioxin (2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin), from 17 to 8,216 ppt for PCB 118, from 8.6
to 919 ppt for HCHs, up to 1,391 ppt for HCB, from 46 to 44,722 ppt for DDT, and from 305 to
149,409 ppt for DDE. Polychlorinated dioxins (PCDDs) and polychlorinated dibenzo-furans
(PCDFs) were also detected at lower levels (22).
Because of health and environmental problems
from POPs in agriculture and industry, Vietnam
was selected as one of nine case studies
sponsored by the United Nations Environmental
Program (UNEP) (23).
Air Pollution
The most common air pollutant in Vietnam is
dust. From 1995 to 1999, "... most urban areas
in Vietnam are polluted by dust, and some
centers are polluted to an alarming degree... In
residential areas next to factories or near large
traffic roads, dust concentration is often higher 1.3 to threefold the acceptable level. The residential
areas near brick and beer plants in Lao Cai town have dust concentration that is fivefold higher than
the permitted standard. The places with highest levels of air pollution are residential areas near Hai
Coping with air pollution in major cities
5
Phong cement plant, VICASA plant (Bien Hoa), Tan Binh industrial zone (Ho Chi Minh City), and
Hon Gai coal select plant (Ha Long City)" (8). "According to the 1995 World Bank report, dust from
cement factories coats much of Hai Phong, the third-largest city, exceeding government air
standards by three to eight times." (3).
In general, daily average concentrations of CO and
NO2 are still below air quality standards in large
cities such as Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh City, Da Nang,
Hai Phong. The air quality standards, however,
have been exceeded in some areas. "For example,
in Dinh Tien Hoang-Dien Bien Phu cross-road ( Ho
Chi Minh City), the daily average value (1999) of
NO2 content was 0.255 mg/m3, which was 2.55
times the permitted standard, and CO content was
15.46 mg/m3, which was more than three times the
permitted standard. In Da Nang steel plant area,
the daily average value (1999) of NO2 content was
0.11 mg/m3, which is 1.1 times the permitted
standard, and CO content was 12.2 mg/m3, which
is 2.44 fold the permitted standard. In Thuong Dinh
industrial zone (Ha Noi) in 1999, CO content was
7.2 mg/m3 that is 1.4 times the permitted standard;
in Hai Phong cement plant in 1999, CO
concentration was 9.42 mg/m3, which is 1.88 times
the permitted standard" (8).
Lead is another common air pollutant, especially in
urban areas. "In Ho Chi Minh City in 1991, 750,000
motorcycles and 75,000 other vehicles, all burning leaded gasoline, contributed to an ambient
lead level of 1-4 micrograms per cubic meter. In comparison, Chicago's airborne lead level in
1988 was less than 0.5 micrograms per cubic meter, according to research published in
Pediatrics in 1994" (3). In Hanoi, the lead level in some areas exceeded 4 micrograms per
cubic meter in 1998 (8).
Air pollution from factories
in urban areas
"Impact of air pollution emission from
several industries (for example: Cau Duong
Brick enterprise, Hoang Thach
Thermoelectric Plant etc) has caused
damage to surrounding agricultural
products. It has damaged the paddy fields
and reduced productivity of rice by 20 to
50%. The ambient air of areas surrounding
several industries (Hai Phong Cement Plant,
Thuong Dinh industrial area etc) is heavily
polluted by dust and SO2 and directly affects
human health e.g. increase in respiratory
diseases by 1.5 - 2.5 times in comparison
with other places, where the environment is
non – polluted" (8)
6
Solid Wastes
Municipal and industrial wastes are other contributing
factors to environmental pollution in Vietnam.
According to the State of the Environment in Vietnam
2001 (8), municipal wastes averaged approximately
16,200 tons/day in 1996, 19,300 tons/day in 1997, and
increased to approximately 22,200 tons/day in 1998.
These amounts did not include approximately 800
tons of cesspool sludge dumped into landfills
everyday. Industrial wastes were estimated between
15 to 26 percent of municipal wastes, in which
between 35 and 41 percent were hazardous.
Hazardous wastes were estimated at approximately
2,200 tons/day in 1998 and 2,600 tons/day in 1999. Medical wastes were estimated between
50 to 75 tons/day. Most hazardous wastes including medical wastes were not treated or were
treated inadequately and then dumped together with municipal wastes into open landfills.
Approximately 13 and 20 percent of solid wastes were reused or recycled, mainly done by
scavengers, who collect plastic, paper, metal and glass.
Trash scavengers
Lack of an adequate collection and disposal system
has encouraged illegal dumping, especially into
canals and rivers causing serious environmental and
transportation problems for these waterways (24). In
Ho Chi Minh City, approximately 100 tons of trash is
dumped into 5 major canals every day, and the total
amount of trash floating in these canals was
estimated at 53,000 tons (25). At existing sanitary
landfills such as Dong Thanh, Tam Tan, and Phuoc
Hiep landfills in Ho Chi Minh City, "... there is no liner
in the bottom and on the walls, no leachate collection
and control or gas system, and no cover layer and no fence on traditional landfills" (8). As a
result, these landfills have become sources of environmental pollution in their vicinities
(26,27,28).
Floating trash in canals
EFFECTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION ON DEVELOPMENT
The environmental pollution has already shown its
impacts on the social and economic development in
Vietnam. Water pollution has reduced availability of
fresh water, killed aquacultural fish in rivers (29,30),
and damaged crops and plants along polluted canals
and rivers used as sources for irrigation water (31).
"The World Bank is soliciting bids for a $150 million
project to build new raw water mains, expand and
update treatment plants, and lay distribution piping in
four large cities" (3). Because of the use of
chloramphenicol and nitrofurans to cope with water
pollution, "... the Vietnam's seafood industry has lost
scores of US dollars recently" (32). Costs for
Aquacultural fish killed by water pollution
in Dong Nai River
7
remediation of water pollution are even higher. "In the Red River delta alone, remediation of
water pollution is estimated at approximately 4 billion $US. Without remediation, costs of water
pollution may reach 8 to 12 billion $US" (33). In the Saigon and Dong Nai river basins, the costs
to protect water from pollution were estimated at approximately 130 million $US (34).
Chemical pollution has threatened public health and
safety and affected the quality of a variety of
agricultural products such meats, seafoods, fruits, and
vegetables. The most common threat is food
poisoning. In 1998 and 1999, 8,758 cases of
pesticides poisoning were reported with 10,034
persons seriously affected and 198 deaths. The
numbers increased to 6,962 cases, 7,613 affected
persons, and 187 deaths in 2001 (35). Long-term
health effects from chemical pollution including death,
cancers, and birth defects have been observed and
reported (17,36). A budget of approximately 30 million
$US was approved for food safety programs in 2003
(37).
Birth defects caused by
pesticides pollution
The tourist industry may have been affected because of environmental pollution at tourist
attractions (38), but effects may not have been recognized.
Effects of environmental pollution on development, i.e. economic costs resulting from
environmental pollution, are very difficult to quantify or estimate. According to studies
conducted in China, "...the annual economic cost of environmental degradation in China can be
illustrated in terms of income loss as a result of deforestation, environmental pollution, and
degradation of natural resources... The final outcome is quite stunning. On an annual basis,
economic losses to China as a result of environmental degradation equal 382.61 billion yuan.
This figure represents 18.9 [percent] of China's
total national income (2022.3 billion yuan in
1992)" (39).
5.81
8.7
8.08
8.83
9.54 9.34
8.15
5.76
4.77
6.75 6.84 7.04
0
2
4
6
8
10
1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
Vietnam's GDP growth rate
According to the Vietnam General Statistical
Office, the gross domestic product (GDP)
increased at an average rate of approximately
7.5 percent between 1991 and 2002 (40). But
this increase did not appear to include "high
environmental costs." Even if the
environmental costs are assumed to be only
one-half of those in China, i.e. approximately
9.5 percent, the GDP actually decreased at a
rate of approximately 2.0 percent.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION MEASURES AND ACHIEVEMENT
8
"Vietnam's environmental policies date to 1985, with the development of a National
Conservation Strategy that urged maintenance of ecological and life-support processes of the
country's various ecosystems and the preservation of its genetic diversity. In 1992, a national
plan was developed to coordinate the development of regulations, information systems, and
strategic for sustainable development, and to promote the use of environmental impact
assessments. This in turn led to the passage of the Environmental Protection Law in 1993,
giving environmental authority to the Ministry of Science, Technology, and Environment" (3).
In addition to the Environmental Protection Law, other laws and regulations were also passed.
These include the Forest Protection and Development Law (1991), the People Health Protection
Law (1989); the Land Use Law (1993), the Law of Oil and Petrol (1993), the Mineral Resources
Law (1996), the Water Resources Law (1998), the Dykes Protection Ordinance (1989), the
Criminal Affair Law (reform, 1999), the Ordinance of Resources Taxes (1989), the Ordinance of
Aquatic Resource Protection (1989), the Ordinance of Radiation Safety and Control (1996), and
the Ordinance of Vegetation Protection and Quarantine (1993) (8).
Although environmental protection has been strengthened during the last decade, the Vietnam
environment continues to degrade. "The socio-economic development process during the
industrialisation period, together with urbanisation and rapid population growth exerts a high
pressure on the environment and natural resources. The forest area continues to be degraded
and destroyed. Mineral products are still exploited recklessly. Land and soil are being eroded
and degraded. Both terrestrial and marine biodiversity have gradually been depleted. The
surface water and ground water resources are more and more polluted and face the risk of
depletion in some regions. Water pollution has also started to occur in coastal areas. The
environment around many urban centres and industrial areas has been polluted by wastewater,
emissions and solid wastes. Environmental sanitary conditions in rural areas are still very
poor..." (8)
Vietnamese officials and some anti-war
organizations claim that environmental
degradation in Vietnam is caused by
"consequences of the Vietnam War" and by
"... a lack of appropriate environmental
standards, coordination and consistency in
the implementation of Vietnam's various legal
provisions on the environment. This is due to
a shortage of necessary facilities for
monitoring environmental policy
implementation and a shortage of human
resources in environmental control units.
There is a lack of public awareness for the
need for environmental protection" (41).
US-Vietnam conference on dioxin in Hanoi
But the true cause appears to be the deficiency of the existing system for environmental
protection, especially in the areas of management and remediation strategies. According to Dr.
Judith Ladinsky, a professor of the University of Wisconsin-Madison and chair of the U.S.
Committee for Scientific Cooperation with Vietnam, Vietnam officials should insist "... on real,
not paper, environmental protection..." (3). Strategies to remediate environmental pollution such
as blame on the consequences of the Vietnam War (42), the relocation of documented polluters
from urban to suburban or rural areas (43), and the diversion of water from polluted canals in Ho
Chi Minh City into the Vam Co and Saigon Rivers (44,45) do not appear to be appropriate.
These remediation strategies do not likely solve pollution problems. On the contrary, they
spread the pollution into clean or less-polluted areas and may make the pollution problems
9
worse. In fact, "... numerous relocated factories in new industrial areas continue to pollute the
environment" (43).
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Since the renovation policy (doi moi) was initiated in 1986, Vietnam has experienced a relatively
rapid economic growth at an average rate of 7.5 percent of the GDP during the last 12 years.
This economic growth, however, has come with the expense of the environment. Vietnam now
is facing with serious environmental problems.
Available data shows that the area of forests destroyed after 1975 has trebled the impacts of
wars between 1945 and 1975, and deforestation still continues at an alarming rate. The forest
systems in Vietnam have also faced with a new threat: destruction of mangroves for shrimp
aquaculture. There are practically no wastewater treatment facilities. Untreated wastewater
from municipal and industrial areas has been discharged directly into rice fields and water
bodies and caused serious water pollution in major cities and river basins. In rural areas,
environmental conditions are not better. Surface water has been polluted with nutrients,
coliforms, and possibly pesticides from agricultural activities and human and animal wastes.
Improper use of large amounts of chemicals and pesticides for agricultural and industrial
production and for fighting disease (DDT) has resulted in serious chemical pollution across the
country. Toxic chemicals including POPs have been found in the environment, foods, breast
milk, and blood. Several toxic chemicals have elevated concentrations much higher than those
for dioxin. Most of urban areas are polluted with dust and smoke, especially in the areas
adjacent to industrial areas, thermo power plants, and cement plants. Lack of an adequate
system for collection and disposal of solid wastes has encouraged illegal dumping, especially
into canals and rivers. Municipal, medical, and industrial wastes have been dumped in open
landfills. These landfills were not properly designed and have become sources of
environmental pollution in their vicinities.
The environmental pollution has already shown its impacts on the social and economic
development in Vietnam. Water pollution has reduced availability of fresh water, killed
aquacultural fish in the rivers, and damaged crops and plants along polluted canals and rivers.
Chemical pollution has threatened public health and safety and affected the quality of
agricultural products. Both short-term and long-term effects including food poisoning, cancers,
birth defects, and death have been observed and reported. It is difficult to quantify or estimate
the economic costs from environmental pollution, especially in Vietnam, but the economic
losses due to environmental pollution may exceed 9.5 percent of the GDP based on a study
conducted in China.
Although environmental protection has been strengthened during the last decade, the Vietnam
environment continues to degrade at an alarming rate. Vietnamese officials and some anti-war
organizations claim that environmental degradation in Vietnam is caused by "consequences of
the Vietnam War" and by a lack of environmental standards, technical tools, and public
awareness. But the true cause appears to be the deficiency of the existing system for
environmental protection, especially in the areas of management and remediation strategies.
10
In order to maintain sustainable development, Vietnam should have a sustainable environment.
Extensive changes should be made, as soon as possible, to improve the existing system for
environmental protection including capacity building, technical training and education, and
proper and effective environmental laws and regulations. Policies should focus on (1) improving
capability in management and environmental know-how, (2) improving environmental education
and training in schools and universities, (3) improving capability of responsible agencies, (4)
prioritizing remediation objectives to optimize effectiveness, (5) improving public awareness on
environmental issues, (6) controlling and encouraging the safe use of the pesticides and
chemicals for agricultural and industrial production (7) seeking international assistance to
eliminate POPs, (8) cooperating with international communities and facilitating their cooperation,
and (9) preparing and implementing appropriate measures to effectively control the disposal of
wastes (solid, liquid, and gas) from industrial and municipal areas.
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(17) Nguyen, Sinh N. et al. March 1999. "The Persistent Organic Pollutants and Their
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(18) Nguyen, Hien V. "Malaria and Its Control in Vietnam." Ministry of Health, Hanoi, Vietnam.
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(20) Hatfield Consultants Ltd. and 10-80 Committee. April 2001. Development of Impact
Mitigation Strategies Related to the Use of Agent Orange Herbicide in the Aluoi Valley,
Vietnam. West Vancouver, Canada.
(21) Schecter, Arnold et al. May 2001. "Recent Dioxin Contamination From Agent Orange in
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(22) Schecter, Arnold et al. 2003. "Food as a Source of Dioxin Exposure in the Residents of
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(24) T. Mai and N. Hau. May 24, 2002. "76 km kenh rach dang can dan vi rac" (in
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12
(26) Tuoi Tre Newspaper. December 20, 2002. "Bai rac Dong Thanh o nhiem mui hoi trong
pham vi 5.000 m" (in Vietnamese). Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. www.vnexpress.com
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boi thuong" (in Vietnamese). Lao Dong Newspaper, Hanoi, Vietnam.
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Vietnamese). Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. www.vnexpress.com
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(in Vietnamese). Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. www.vnexpress.com
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luong khang sinh", Hanoi, Vietnam. www.vnexpress.com
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nuoc song Gai Gon – Dong Nai" (in Vietnamese). Lao Dong Newspaper, Hanoi, Vietnam.
(35) Nhan Dan Newspaper. March 13, 2002. "Nam 2001, hon 500 nguoi chet va tai nan lao
dong va nhiem doc." (in Vietnamese). Nhan Dan Newspaper, Hanoi, Vietnam.
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sinh thuc pham" (in Vietnamese). Nhan Dan Newspaper, Hanoi, Vietnam.
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Vietnamese). Lao Dong Newspaper, Hanoi, Vietnam. www.laodong.com.vn
(39) Mao, Yu-Shi. "The Economic Cost of Environmental Degradation in China – A Summary."
www.library.utoronto.ca/pcs/state/chinaeco/summary.htm
(40) Vietnam Trade Office. "Economic Performance" www.vietnam-ustrade.org
13
(41) Nhan Dan Newspaper. November 14, 2002. "Status of water pollution in Vietnam (report
of the Congressional Committee on Science, Technology, and Environment)" (in
Vietnamese). Nhan Dan Newspaper, Hanoi, Vietnam. www.nhandan.org.vn
(42) Environmental Conference on Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam. July 28, 2002. "Declaration
on the long-term consequences of war in Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam." Stockholm,
Sweden. www.nnn.se/vietnam
(43) Huu Thai. August 11, 2003. "Thieu he thong xu ly nuoc thai: Cac KCN dang thanh 'o' o
nhiem!" (in Vietnamese). Sai Gon Giai Phong Newspaper, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam.
(44) Nong, Y K. January 13, 2003. "32 doanh nghiep bien song Sai Gon thanh song den" (in
Vietnamese). Nguoi Lao Dong Newspaper, Hanoi, Vietnam. www.nld.com.vn
(45) T.H.T. September 5, 2003. "TP. Ho Chi Minh: Khoi cong xay dung tram bom chong ngap
cho 1,2 trieu dan" (in Vietnamese). Lao Dong Newspaper, Hanoi, Vietnam.
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